The Fertile Crescent:
![Picture](/uploads/2/2/4/1/22411520/1669985.png)
Humans lived as nomads for tens of thousands of years before slowly settling down in various parts of the world. Nomads are people who have no permanent home and travel in search of food and safety. The nomads would temporarily camp in an area for a few weeks or months. A typical nomadic group might include an extended family of about ten adults and their children. The men would hunt animals while the women would gather fruit, grains, seeds and nuts. When the nomads exhausted the land, they moved to a new area.
Civilization developed slowly in different parts of the world. People began to settle in areas with abundant natural resources. For thousands of years, people have given up their nomadic lifestyles to settle in a part of the world archaeologists later called the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is a boomerang -shaped region that extends from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. The Fertile Crescent is a rich food-growing area in a part of the world where most of the land is too dry for farming.
Some of the best farmland of the Fertile Crescent is on a narrow strip of land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The two rivers travel near one another for thousands of miles before they combine to drain into the Persian Gulf. The Greeks called this area Mesopotamia, which means "between the rivers." Water from the Tigris and Euphrates soaks into the surrounding land, so although Mesopotamia has very little rainfall, the land is rich in nutrients.
Many different civilizations flourished in this small region. The Sumerians slowly developed one of the first civilizations in the southeastern region of Mesopotamia as long as 7,500 years ago. The Sumerian civilization lasted more than three thousand years, but in time the Sumerians lost their influence. The Babylonians formed a centralized government under King Hammurabi from about 1770 B.C. to about 1595 B.C. Various other cultures dominated part or all of the Fertile Crescent including Amorites, the Kassites, (c. 1531-1155 B.C.) the Hittites (c. 1370 – 1205 B.C.) and the Assyrians (c.890-600 B.C.). The land known as Mesopotamia was later controlled by the Persians of modern day Iran, the Greeks under Alexander the Great, the Romans, and the Ottoman Turks. The land between the Tigris and Euphrates has been part of the modern nation of Iraq since 1932.
Natural Boundaries:
The Tigris and the Euphrates are natural boundaries. This is because the boundaries were formed by nature instead of being drawn by people. Examples of natural boundaries include rivers, mountain ranges or deserts.
Straight lines on a map generally signify borders made by people, while natural borders can follow many different paths. This is easy to demonstrate on a map of the United States. Most of the boundaries of the western states are straight lines; Colorado and Wyoming and rectangles. Many eastern states have jagged shapes because their borders are formed by rivers.
Civilization developed slowly in different parts of the world. People began to settle in areas with abundant natural resources. For thousands of years, people have given up their nomadic lifestyles to settle in a part of the world archaeologists later called the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is a boomerang -shaped region that extends from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. The Fertile Crescent is a rich food-growing area in a part of the world where most of the land is too dry for farming.
Some of the best farmland of the Fertile Crescent is on a narrow strip of land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The two rivers travel near one another for thousands of miles before they combine to drain into the Persian Gulf. The Greeks called this area Mesopotamia, which means "between the rivers." Water from the Tigris and Euphrates soaks into the surrounding land, so although Mesopotamia has very little rainfall, the land is rich in nutrients.
Many different civilizations flourished in this small region. The Sumerians slowly developed one of the first civilizations in the southeastern region of Mesopotamia as long as 7,500 years ago. The Sumerian civilization lasted more than three thousand years, but in time the Sumerians lost their influence. The Babylonians formed a centralized government under King Hammurabi from about 1770 B.C. to about 1595 B.C. Various other cultures dominated part or all of the Fertile Crescent including Amorites, the Kassites, (c. 1531-1155 B.C.) the Hittites (c. 1370 – 1205 B.C.) and the Assyrians (c.890-600 B.C.). The land known as Mesopotamia was later controlled by the Persians of modern day Iran, the Greeks under Alexander the Great, the Romans, and the Ottoman Turks. The land between the Tigris and Euphrates has been part of the modern nation of Iraq since 1932.
Natural Boundaries:
The Tigris and the Euphrates are natural boundaries. This is because the boundaries were formed by nature instead of being drawn by people. Examples of natural boundaries include rivers, mountain ranges or deserts.
Straight lines on a map generally signify borders made by people, while natural borders can follow many different paths. This is easy to demonstrate on a map of the United States. Most of the boundaries of the western states are straight lines; Colorado and Wyoming and rectangles. Many eastern states have jagged shapes because their borders are formed by rivers.
Civilization:
![Picture](/uploads/2/2/4/1/22411520/8991479.png)
There are many ways to define a civilization, but most scholars agree that when a society begins to form cities, it becomes a civilization. In fact, the word civilization comes from the Latin civilis, meaning "of the city." Most civilizations have the following elements:
A surplus of food:
Prehistoric people were nomadic. They had no home because they were constantly in search of food. When people cannot rely on having a steady supply of food, finding nourishment becomes their highest priority. When people have enough to eat, they begin to develop other needs.
A division of labor:
When a person has one job, through constant practice, he or she tends to do that job very well. People are also more likely to work at jobs that brings them satisfaction. In order for people to work at individual jobs, the individual members of their group must cooperate with one another.
Organized government and religion:
People living under the same government or having the same religious beliefs are likely to have similar values. A level of trust and mutual responsibility often grows in these circumstances, making it is easier for members of a group to exchange goods and services with one another.
Writing:
Writing allows people to keep records and communicate. Writing also makes it possible to send knowledge through time and space. A written message can travel a great distance, and can live on past the life of the writer.
A surplus of food:
Prehistoric people were nomadic. They had no home because they were constantly in search of food. When people cannot rely on having a steady supply of food, finding nourishment becomes their highest priority. When people have enough to eat, they begin to develop other needs.
A division of labor:
When a person has one job, through constant practice, he or she tends to do that job very well. People are also more likely to work at jobs that brings them satisfaction. In order for people to work at individual jobs, the individual members of their group must cooperate with one another.
Organized government and religion:
People living under the same government or having the same religious beliefs are likely to have similar values. A level of trust and mutual responsibility often grows in these circumstances, making it is easier for members of a group to exchange goods and services with one another.
Writing:
Writing allows people to keep records and communicate. Writing also makes it possible to send knowledge through time and space. A written message can travel a great distance, and can live on past the life of the writer.
Abraham Maslow and Self-Actualization:
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Psychologists study mental processes and behavior. Most early psychologists studied people who had problems, but Abraham Maslow (born 1908 – died 1970) studied people who were satisfied with their lives. Maslow decided that people want to be happy and loving, but often there are particular unmet needs that keep them from being satisfied.
Maslow believed most people want more than they have. Once a person meets their most basic needs, they develop higher needs. Maslow said, “As one desire is satisfied, another pops up in its place.”
Maslow created a Hierarchy of Needs; a pyramid with five levels. Maslow argued that once lower level needs are met, people develop higher levels until they reach a stage the psychologist called “self-actualization.” Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes these five levels:
Physiological needs:
Physiological needs are biological necessities such as food, water, and oxygen. These needs are the strongest because a person would die if they were not satisfied.
Safety needs:
People feel unsafe during emergencies, or times of disorder like rioting. Children more commonly do not have their safety needs met when they feel afraid.
Love and belonging needs:
The need to escape loneliness and alienation, to give and receive love, and a have sense of being a part of a group. Love and belonging needs are usually met within a family.
Friendship and esteem needs:
The need to feel valuable, to have self-respect and the respect of others. If a person does not fulfill their esteem needs, he or she feels inferior, weak, helpless, and worthless.
Self-actualization needs:
Maslow taught that a very small group of people reach a level called self-actualization, where all of their needs are met. Maslow described self-actualization as a person’s finding their “calling.” He said, “a musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write.”
Many people confuse self-actualization with fame or fortune, but often this is not the case. While wealthy or celebrated people might reach self-actualization, many people who have reached the highest level of happiness are unknown beyond their circle of family and friends.
According to Maslow’s theory, civilization developed because people wanted more and sought to improve their circumstances. Once people met their physiological needs and feet safe, they began to develop a culture and an advanced civilization.
Maslow believed most people want more than they have. Once a person meets their most basic needs, they develop higher needs. Maslow said, “As one desire is satisfied, another pops up in its place.”
Maslow created a Hierarchy of Needs; a pyramid with five levels. Maslow argued that once lower level needs are met, people develop higher levels until they reach a stage the psychologist called “self-actualization.” Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes these five levels:
Physiological needs:
Physiological needs are biological necessities such as food, water, and oxygen. These needs are the strongest because a person would die if they were not satisfied.
Safety needs:
People feel unsafe during emergencies, or times of disorder like rioting. Children more commonly do not have their safety needs met when they feel afraid.
Love and belonging needs:
The need to escape loneliness and alienation, to give and receive love, and a have sense of being a part of a group. Love and belonging needs are usually met within a family.
Friendship and esteem needs:
The need to feel valuable, to have self-respect and the respect of others. If a person does not fulfill their esteem needs, he or she feels inferior, weak, helpless, and worthless.
Self-actualization needs:
Maslow taught that a very small group of people reach a level called self-actualization, where all of their needs are met. Maslow described self-actualization as a person’s finding their “calling.” He said, “a musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write.”
Many people confuse self-actualization with fame or fortune, but often this is not the case. While wealthy or celebrated people might reach self-actualization, many people who have reached the highest level of happiness are unknown beyond their circle of family and friends.
According to Maslow’s theory, civilization developed because people wanted more and sought to improve their circumstances. Once people met their physiological needs and feet safe, they began to develop a culture and an advanced civilization.
Numbering Years:
![Picture](/uploads/2/2/4/1/22411520/9923555.png?161)
Ancient calendars were generally based on the beginning of a ruler's reign; for example, the third year of Hammurabi’s rule. Most people today use the Western calendar (also known as the Gregorian calendar) for everyday purposes. About 525 A.D., a Christian monk named Dionysius Exiguus marked the year Christ was born as 1. The Western calendar tells us we live in 2013, which is sometimes written AD 2013. AD refers to the Anno Domini, a Latin phrase that means “the year of the Lord.” The years before the birth of Christ are numbered backward from his birth. The year before AD 1 was 1 BC, or one year “before Christ.” When referring to dates before the birth of Christ, the higher the number the earlier the year. Since we mark years from a set point known as 1—there is no year 0—3500 B.C. was 5513 years ago.
Non-Christians often use the term CE in place of AD. CE refers to “Common Era,” "Current Era," or “Christian Era.” BCE can describe the era preceding the Common Era. This can mean “Before the Common Era,” "Before the Current Era," or “Before the Christian Era.”
Most people use the Western Calendar today, but other calendars are used for cultural and religious purposes. The Islamic calendar is based on the cycle of the moon, so it is ten or eleven days shorter than the Western calendar. The first year of the Islamic calendar is the year the prophet Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina. On a Western calendar, this is AD 622. Most of 2013 is part of the Islamic year AH1434. AH is a Latin phrase that can be translated as “the year of the journey.” The Hebrew calendar is used for Jewish religious services. The Hebrew year 5774 began at sunset on September 4, 2013. Years are marked AM on the Hebrew calendar for a Latin phrase that means “the beginning of the world.” The Chinese calendar is used for festivals and holidays in many East Asian nations. On the Chinese calendar, most of 2013 is known as the Year of the Snake.
On Western calendars there are ten years in a decade, one hundred years in a century, and one thousand years in a millennium. This is considered the twenty-first century of the Common Era. The first century lasted from January 1, AD 1 to December 31, AD 100. On December 31, 1999, many people celebrated the coming of the new millennium, but the millennium did not end until December 31, 2000.
We also use terms such as era or epoch to describe periods of time. A geologist is someone who studies how the earth has changed, and for a geologist, an era might last millions of years. For our purposes, an era will be any significant period of time. For example, you are in the middle school era of your life. You may see photographs of people wearing different styles of clothing that reflect the era when the pictures were taken. An epoch is a particular moment that marks the beginning or the end of an era. Your thirteenth birthday is the epoch that begins your teenage years.
Dionysius Exiguus:
Dionysius Exiguus lived in the sixth century of the Common Era. His name can be translated as Dennis the Humble; though a writer described Dionysius as “the most learned” scholar in the city of Rome, Dionysius lived a simple life as a Christian monk. A monk is a religious person who resides apart from the rest of society in a life of prayer or study.
About AD 525, Pope John I asked Dionysius to calculate a table of the future dates of Easter. Easter is an important Christian holiday that occurs at different times during the spring based on the cycle of the moon. At that time, many Romans numbered years from the reign of Emperor Diocletian. Diocletian instigated the persecution of Christians, so Dionysius dated his table from the birth of Jesus Christ.
Dionysius calculated that Christ was born 525 years before his time, so the monk identified the year he wrote the table as anno Domini 525, which translates to the year of the Lord 525. Later scholars studied the Christian Bible and concluded that Jesus was likely born between four and six years earlier than Dionysius’ calculation.
Non-Christians often use the term CE in place of AD. CE refers to “Common Era,” "Current Era," or “Christian Era.” BCE can describe the era preceding the Common Era. This can mean “Before the Common Era,” "Before the Current Era," or “Before the Christian Era.”
Most people use the Western Calendar today, but other calendars are used for cultural and religious purposes. The Islamic calendar is based on the cycle of the moon, so it is ten or eleven days shorter than the Western calendar. The first year of the Islamic calendar is the year the prophet Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina. On a Western calendar, this is AD 622. Most of 2013 is part of the Islamic year AH1434. AH is a Latin phrase that can be translated as “the year of the journey.” The Hebrew calendar is used for Jewish religious services. The Hebrew year 5774 began at sunset on September 4, 2013. Years are marked AM on the Hebrew calendar for a Latin phrase that means “the beginning of the world.” The Chinese calendar is used for festivals and holidays in many East Asian nations. On the Chinese calendar, most of 2013 is known as the Year of the Snake.
On Western calendars there are ten years in a decade, one hundred years in a century, and one thousand years in a millennium. This is considered the twenty-first century of the Common Era. The first century lasted from January 1, AD 1 to December 31, AD 100. On December 31, 1999, many people celebrated the coming of the new millennium, but the millennium did not end until December 31, 2000.
We also use terms such as era or epoch to describe periods of time. A geologist is someone who studies how the earth has changed, and for a geologist, an era might last millions of years. For our purposes, an era will be any significant period of time. For example, you are in the middle school era of your life. You may see photographs of people wearing different styles of clothing that reflect the era when the pictures were taken. An epoch is a particular moment that marks the beginning or the end of an era. Your thirteenth birthday is the epoch that begins your teenage years.
Dionysius Exiguus:
Dionysius Exiguus lived in the sixth century of the Common Era. His name can be translated as Dennis the Humble; though a writer described Dionysius as “the most learned” scholar in the city of Rome, Dionysius lived a simple life as a Christian monk. A monk is a religious person who resides apart from the rest of society in a life of prayer or study.
About AD 525, Pope John I asked Dionysius to calculate a table of the future dates of Easter. Easter is an important Christian holiday that occurs at different times during the spring based on the cycle of the moon. At that time, many Romans numbered years from the reign of Emperor Diocletian. Diocletian instigated the persecution of Christians, so Dionysius dated his table from the birth of Jesus Christ.
Dionysius calculated that Christ was born 525 years before his time, so the monk identified the year he wrote the table as anno Domini 525, which translates to the year of the Lord 525. Later scholars studied the Christian Bible and concluded that Jesus was likely born between four and six years earlier than Dionysius’ calculation.
Waterfront Living:
![Picture](/uploads/2/2/4/1/22411520/942433.jpg)
Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" is an obvious place for a civilization because it is located near two sources of water: the Tigris River and the Euphrates River. Ancient Egypt developed along the Nile River. Most people live near water. If you look at any large city, you'll probably find water nearby. People need the water for drinking, cooking, cleaning and transportation.
Many cities formed where freshwater rivers meet the ocean. New York City is located where the Hudson River meets the Atlantic Ocean. In America, New York City has a harbor. A harbor is a place where ships can seek shelter from stormy weather. Chicago grew alongside the point where the Chicago River flows into Lake Michigan. The point where two rivers meet is known as a confluence. St. Louis, Missouri is situated near the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers.
A few cities are not near a significant source of water. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Tehran, Iran once had sources of water that no longer exist. Johannesburg, South Africa developed after the discovery of gold in 1886. The Chattahoochee River near Atlanta, Georgia is not a significant source of water. Atlanta developed as a trading city because it was the point where two railroads met. Modern technology has made it possible to bring water to very dry places, but for most of history it was necessary for a city to be near a source of water.
Many cities formed where freshwater rivers meet the ocean. New York City is located where the Hudson River meets the Atlantic Ocean. In America, New York City has a harbor. A harbor is a place where ships can seek shelter from stormy weather. Chicago grew alongside the point where the Chicago River flows into Lake Michigan. The point where two rivers meet is known as a confluence. St. Louis, Missouri is situated near the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers.
A few cities are not near a significant source of water. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Tehran, Iran once had sources of water that no longer exist. Johannesburg, South Africa developed after the discovery of gold in 1886. The Chattahoochee River near Atlanta, Georgia is not a significant source of water. Atlanta developed as a trading city because it was the point where two railroads met. Modern technology has made it possible to bring water to very dry places, but for most of history it was necessary for a city to be near a source of water.
The Sumerians:
![Picture](/uploads/2/2/4/1/22411520/4391324.gif)
The Sumerians moved to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers about 3500BC. We do not know where they came from; they were probably nomads who discovered the fertile land of Mesopotamia. Nomads travel in small groups until they have eaten the food and hunted the animals in their area. When food is no longer plentiful, the nomads moved to a new area. Some people continue to live nomadic lifestyles in remote parts of the world to this day.
Eventually, the Sumerians developed a civilization. They learned that by planting seeds and plowing their land, they were able to grow crops. The Sumerians learned to domesticate, or tame animals to help them plow their lands. The built ditches and canals to make their farmland more productive. The artificial application of water to improve farmland is called irrigation. The Sumerians also made a very important invention--the wheel. The invention of the wheel made it possible to pull heavy loads.
The Sumerians formed several city-states. City-states are nations the size of cities. Walls around each city-state protected the citizens from outside invaders. Farmland was usually outside the city walls, and people would seek protection from the walls of the city when under attack.
The Sumerians were polytheistic, which means they believed in many gods. The Sumerians worshiped their gods at huge temples they called ziggurats. They dedicated each ziggurat to a different god, whom the Sumerians believed ruled over their city-state. When a city was conquered, the invaders would force the conquered people to accept their gods. Most people in the Western Hemisphere today practice monotheism. This means they believe in only one God. Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are all monotheistic faiths.
The Sumerian city-states flourished for more than one thousand years, but in time, Sumerian farmland became less productive. At about the same time, rival city-states emerged further upriver in Mesopotamia.
Eventually, the Sumerians developed a civilization. They learned that by planting seeds and plowing their land, they were able to grow crops. The Sumerians learned to domesticate, or tame animals to help them plow their lands. The built ditches and canals to make their farmland more productive. The artificial application of water to improve farmland is called irrigation. The Sumerians also made a very important invention--the wheel. The invention of the wheel made it possible to pull heavy loads.
The Sumerians formed several city-states. City-states are nations the size of cities. Walls around each city-state protected the citizens from outside invaders. Farmland was usually outside the city walls, and people would seek protection from the walls of the city when under attack.
The Sumerians were polytheistic, which means they believed in many gods. The Sumerians worshiped their gods at huge temples they called ziggurats. They dedicated each ziggurat to a different god, whom the Sumerians believed ruled over their city-state. When a city was conquered, the invaders would force the conquered people to accept their gods. Most people in the Western Hemisphere today practice monotheism. This means they believe in only one God. Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are all monotheistic faiths.
The Sumerian city-states flourished for more than one thousand years, but in time, Sumerian farmland became less productive. At about the same time, rival city-states emerged further upriver in Mesopotamia.
Writing:
![Picture](/uploads/2/2/4/1/22411520/6825536.jpg?128)
Ancient Sumerian record keepers marked pictographic symbols in soft pieces of clay with a pointed reed. The clay tablets were then baked to make them hard. We call the Sumerian writing system cuneiform. Cuneiform means wedged shaped because the marks in the clay were wedges.
The first pictographs were simple. A writer would draw an object such as a fish or a broom to communicate to others. A pictographic writing system worked well in a simple society, but it was difficult to describe abstract concepts such as justice or liberty in pictographs. Many Chinese people continue to use a pictographic system today, but the government has endorsed the Pinyin system of phonetic writing.
Eventually, most cultures developed phonetic writing systems where a symbol represents a sound rather than an object. English speaking people agree that the symbols D-O-G refer to an animal. English, French, Spanish, German and Russian are examples of phonetic languages. Phonetic languages make small typewriters and computer keyboards possible. Imagine a different key for every single word!
Writing helped civilization to develop
The first pictographs were simple. A writer would draw an object such as a fish or a broom to communicate to others. A pictographic writing system worked well in a simple society, but it was difficult to describe abstract concepts such as justice or liberty in pictographs. Many Chinese people continue to use a pictographic system today, but the government has endorsed the Pinyin system of phonetic writing.
Eventually, most cultures developed phonetic writing systems where a symbol represents a sound rather than an object. English speaking people agree that the symbols D-O-G refer to an animal. English, French, Spanish, German and Russian are examples of phonetic languages. Phonetic languages make small typewriters and computer keyboards possible. Imagine a different key for every single word!
Writing helped civilization to develop
- Writing allowed people to keep records of their transactions.
- Writing made it possible for people to send messages with couriers to far away lands without traveling.
- Writing allowed people to pass on their accumulated knowledge to future generations.
Gilgamesh:
![Picture](/uploads/2/2/4/1/22411520/9164707.jpg?166)
The Epic of Gilgamesh is among the earliest known works of literature. An epic is a long poem that tells the story of legendary or heroic people or gods. Like most epics, the first stories of Gilgamesh began as oral stories handed down by word of mouth. Hundreds of years after the poets first spoke of Gilgamesh; the legends were collected and recorded on clay tablets.
The story takes place nearly five thousand years ago. Gilgamesh was the king of the wealthy city of Urduk. The king was strong and handsome, but he was also cruel. Gilgamesh forced the people of Urduk to build him great palaces. He also made his subjects live in constant fear. When the people of Urduk begged the gods for help, they led Enkidu to Urduk. Enkidu was also big and strong, but he was wild and ignorant of the ways of civilized people. Enkidu was raised in the forest where he lived with the animals. When Enkidu learned of Gilgamesh's cruelty, the wild man challenged the mighty king to fight. As the two powerful men battled, they realized they admired one another; so instead of remaining enemies, they became inseparable friends.
The unlikely pair left Urduk to embark on many adventures. Gilgamesh and Enkidu entered the forbidden Cedar Forest where the gods lived, but they soon faced a grotesque monster named Humbaba.
"in order to protect the Cedar Forest [the gods] assigned Humbaba as a terror to human beings; Humbaba's roar is a flood, his mouth is fire, and his breath is death!”
When Gilgamesh and Enkidu tricked the beast, the powers of Humbaba were spread over the lands of Sumer.
Gilgamesh displeased the goddess Ishtar, so she sent the fearsome Bull of Heaven to destroy the crops of the Sumerian farmers. Gilgamesh and Enkidu killed the bull. This enraged the gods, so they caused Enkidu to fall ill and die.
Gilgamesh was heartbroken by the death of his friend. The king also feared that one day he would also die, so Gilgamesh began to search for the secret of eternal life. One version of the epic describes a terrible flood that covered the earth many years before the time of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh went on a long journey to meet Utnapishtim, an elderly man who survived the flood because the gods warned him of the coming deluge. Utnapishtim told Gilgamesh,
"The life that you are seeking you will never find. When the gods created man they allotted to him death, but life they retained in their own keeping."
Gilgamesh returned home filled with wisdom from his adventures with Enkidu and Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh became a gentle ruler who no longer mistreated the people of Urduk. Gilgamesh realized that he could not escape death, but he could live on in the memories of the people he loved.
The Epic of Gilgamesh had many parallels with to the story of Noah and a great flood in the Old Testament of the Jewish and Christian holy books. Other cultures also have legends of a great flood. The Greeks legends say a god named Zeus once unleashed a flood because he was displeased with a sacrifice made in his name. The Hindus speak of Manu, a Brahmin king who saved mankind from a deluge.
Modern science has discovered that there was a marked increase in the sea levels about 6,000 years ago as the last ice age ended. The melting ice drained to the oceans causing the sea levels to rise more than ten feet in one century. Gilgamesh and the other flood legends may be connected with the end of the ice age.
The story takes place nearly five thousand years ago. Gilgamesh was the king of the wealthy city of Urduk. The king was strong and handsome, but he was also cruel. Gilgamesh forced the people of Urduk to build him great palaces. He also made his subjects live in constant fear. When the people of Urduk begged the gods for help, they led Enkidu to Urduk. Enkidu was also big and strong, but he was wild and ignorant of the ways of civilized people. Enkidu was raised in the forest where he lived with the animals. When Enkidu learned of Gilgamesh's cruelty, the wild man challenged the mighty king to fight. As the two powerful men battled, they realized they admired one another; so instead of remaining enemies, they became inseparable friends.
The unlikely pair left Urduk to embark on many adventures. Gilgamesh and Enkidu entered the forbidden Cedar Forest where the gods lived, but they soon faced a grotesque monster named Humbaba.
"in order to protect the Cedar Forest [the gods] assigned Humbaba as a terror to human beings; Humbaba's roar is a flood, his mouth is fire, and his breath is death!”
When Gilgamesh and Enkidu tricked the beast, the powers of Humbaba were spread over the lands of Sumer.
Gilgamesh displeased the goddess Ishtar, so she sent the fearsome Bull of Heaven to destroy the crops of the Sumerian farmers. Gilgamesh and Enkidu killed the bull. This enraged the gods, so they caused Enkidu to fall ill and die.
Gilgamesh was heartbroken by the death of his friend. The king also feared that one day he would also die, so Gilgamesh began to search for the secret of eternal life. One version of the epic describes a terrible flood that covered the earth many years before the time of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh went on a long journey to meet Utnapishtim, an elderly man who survived the flood because the gods warned him of the coming deluge. Utnapishtim told Gilgamesh,
"The life that you are seeking you will never find. When the gods created man they allotted to him death, but life they retained in their own keeping."
Gilgamesh returned home filled with wisdom from his adventures with Enkidu and Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh became a gentle ruler who no longer mistreated the people of Urduk. Gilgamesh realized that he could not escape death, but he could live on in the memories of the people he loved.
The Epic of Gilgamesh had many parallels with to the story of Noah and a great flood in the Old Testament of the Jewish and Christian holy books. Other cultures also have legends of a great flood. The Greeks legends say a god named Zeus once unleashed a flood because he was displeased with a sacrifice made in his name. The Hindus speak of Manu, a Brahmin king who saved mankind from a deluge.
Modern science has discovered that there was a marked increase in the sea levels about 6,000 years ago as the last ice age ended. The melting ice drained to the oceans causing the sea levels to rise more than ten feet in one century. Gilgamesh and the other flood legends may be connected with the end of the ice age.
Hammurabi's Code:
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Hammurabi was a Mesopotamian king who recorded a system of laws called the Code of Hammurabi. His 282 laws were engraved in stone and placed in a public location for everyone to see. Some of Hammurabi's laws were based on the principle "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." This means that whoever commits an injury should be punished in the same manner as that injury. If someone puts out another person's eye, their eye would be put out in return.
Hammurabi's code included what we today call both criminal and civil law. Criminal law is composed of rules that define conduct. One law said, "if a son strikes his father, his hands shall be hewn off." Civil law settles disputes among individuals. Hammurabi's Code states, "if a man builds a house badly, and it falls and kills the owner, the builder is to be killed. If the owner's son was killed, then the builder's son is to be killed."
One exception existed to the principle of "an eye for an eye." It demonstrated that Hammurabi believed the gods had power over people and events. An accused person was allowed to jump into the Euphrates River. "If he sinks in the river his accuser shall take possession of his house. But if the river proves that the accused is not guilty, and he escapes unhurt, then he who had brought the accusation shall be put to death, while he who leaped into the river shall take possession of the house that had belonged to his accuser." We can surmise from this law that not many people at that time were able to swim.
Hammurabi reigned from 1795 to 1750BC in the city-state of Babylon. Sumer was once the most populated part of Mesopotamia, but after about a millennium, Sumer's soil was no longer able to support crops. The population shifted upriver and new kingdoms formed. One of the richest and most powerful was Babylon. Babylon was known for its spectacular entertainment. People still refer to a rich city with many luxuries as "a Babylon."
Hammurabi's Code helps us understand what life was like in ancient Babylon. Equal punishment existed only when the two sides were of equal rank. The punishment would be less if the injured person was a woman or a slave. One law said, "if a man strikes a free-born woman so that she loses her unborn child, he shall pay ten shekels for her loss." Another says, "if a man has caught either a male or female runaway slave in the open field and has brought him back to his owner, the owner of the slave shall give him two shekels of silver."
Hammurabi Code is the earliest form of law that we are able to read and study because, in 1901, a French expedition to Mesopotamia uncovered a copy of the Babylonian king's laws. The stone pillar where Hammurabi had his laws engraved is on display at the Louvre, a museum in Paris, France.
Hammurabi's code included what we today call both criminal and civil law. Criminal law is composed of rules that define conduct. One law said, "if a son strikes his father, his hands shall be hewn off." Civil law settles disputes among individuals. Hammurabi's Code states, "if a man builds a house badly, and it falls and kills the owner, the builder is to be killed. If the owner's son was killed, then the builder's son is to be killed."
One exception existed to the principle of "an eye for an eye." It demonstrated that Hammurabi believed the gods had power over people and events. An accused person was allowed to jump into the Euphrates River. "If he sinks in the river his accuser shall take possession of his house. But if the river proves that the accused is not guilty, and he escapes unhurt, then he who had brought the accusation shall be put to death, while he who leaped into the river shall take possession of the house that had belonged to his accuser." We can surmise from this law that not many people at that time were able to swim.
Hammurabi reigned from 1795 to 1750BC in the city-state of Babylon. Sumer was once the most populated part of Mesopotamia, but after about a millennium, Sumer's soil was no longer able to support crops. The population shifted upriver and new kingdoms formed. One of the richest and most powerful was Babylon. Babylon was known for its spectacular entertainment. People still refer to a rich city with many luxuries as "a Babylon."
Hammurabi's Code helps us understand what life was like in ancient Babylon. Equal punishment existed only when the two sides were of equal rank. The punishment would be less if the injured person was a woman or a slave. One law said, "if a man strikes a free-born woman so that she loses her unborn child, he shall pay ten shekels for her loss." Another says, "if a man has caught either a male or female runaway slave in the open field and has brought him back to his owner, the owner of the slave shall give him two shekels of silver."
Hammurabi Code is the earliest form of law that we are able to read and study because, in 1901, a French expedition to Mesopotamia uncovered a copy of the Babylonian king's laws. The stone pillar where Hammurabi had his laws engraved is on display at the Louvre, a museum in Paris, France.
The Assyrians:
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The Assyrians were a fierce warrior kingdom who lived upstream on the Tigris River from the Babylonians. Assyrian armies conquered Babylon in 911 B.C. and over the next three centuries, the Assyrians built the largest and powerful empire the world had known at that time. By the seventh century BC, Assyrian armies seized lands stretching from Egypt in the west, across Mesopotamia to Persia in the east. The Assyrians ruled over their empire with great cruelty, forcing cities to pay tribute. Tribute is payment for protection. The tribute from throughout the region made Assyrian warriors rich. The wealth also allowed the Assyrians to invest in military technology that made their armies even more fearsome.
Iron swords, lances and armor strengthened the Assyrian army. Iron weapons are stronger than the bronze weapons used by other civilizations of that era. The Assyrians also used iron to create powerful battering rams. In its most simple form, a battering ram is a large, heavy log carried by several men and propelled with enough force to break down city walls. The Assyrians added wheels and canopies to their battering rams. A canopy is a small roof that protected Assyrian soldiers from rocks and spears thrown by defensive forces standing atop city walls.
The invention spoke wheels made Assyrian chariots lighter, faster, and better prepared to outrun soldiers and other chariots. Assyrian archers would shoot arrows from the chariot and escape before opponents had the opportunity to counter-attack. Arrows from their deadly crossbows could penetrate the armor of rival soldiers. About 1000 B.C., the Assyrians introduced the first cavalry. A cavalry is an army that fights on horseback. The saddle had not yet been invented, so the Assyrian cavalry fought on the bare backs of the horses.
The Assyrian cavalry was also better outfitted for war, with chain mail and leather boots. Chain mail is a type of armor consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. While other armies fought in sandals, leather boots protected Assyrian soldiers while they were around horses, and prepared the Assyrian army to fight in rough terrain and in cold weather, rain and snow.
Soon after the death of the warrior king Assurbanipal in 627 B.C., widespread revolts toppled the Assyrian Empire. Babylon recaptured Mesopotamia under the rule of their warrior king, Nebuchadnezzar. Mesopotamia later fell to many outside cultures that included the Persians, the army of Alexander the Great, the Romans the Turks and the British. Mesopotamia is now part of the modern nation of Iraq, a country that is struggling to develop democratic government after the brutal dictatorship of Saddam Hussein ended in 2003.
Iron swords, lances and armor strengthened the Assyrian army. Iron weapons are stronger than the bronze weapons used by other civilizations of that era. The Assyrians also used iron to create powerful battering rams. In its most simple form, a battering ram is a large, heavy log carried by several men and propelled with enough force to break down city walls. The Assyrians added wheels and canopies to their battering rams. A canopy is a small roof that protected Assyrian soldiers from rocks and spears thrown by defensive forces standing atop city walls.
The invention spoke wheels made Assyrian chariots lighter, faster, and better prepared to outrun soldiers and other chariots. Assyrian archers would shoot arrows from the chariot and escape before opponents had the opportunity to counter-attack. Arrows from their deadly crossbows could penetrate the armor of rival soldiers. About 1000 B.C., the Assyrians introduced the first cavalry. A cavalry is an army that fights on horseback. The saddle had not yet been invented, so the Assyrian cavalry fought on the bare backs of the horses.
The Assyrian cavalry was also better outfitted for war, with chain mail and leather boots. Chain mail is a type of armor consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. While other armies fought in sandals, leather boots protected Assyrian soldiers while they were around horses, and prepared the Assyrian army to fight in rough terrain and in cold weather, rain and snow.
Soon after the death of the warrior king Assurbanipal in 627 B.C., widespread revolts toppled the Assyrian Empire. Babylon recaptured Mesopotamia under the rule of their warrior king, Nebuchadnezzar. Mesopotamia later fell to many outside cultures that included the Persians, the army of Alexander the Great, the Romans the Turks and the British. Mesopotamia is now part of the modern nation of Iraq, a country that is struggling to develop democratic government after the brutal dictatorship of Saddam Hussein ended in 2003.
References:
Dowling, Mike. "The Assyrians at mrdowling.com" www.mrdowling.com. Updated January 13, 2014 . Web. Date of Access. <http://www.mrdowling.com/603-assyrians.html>
Dowling, Mike. "The Assyrians at mrdowling.com" www.mrdowling.com. Updated January 13, 2014 . Web. Date of Access. <http://www.mrdowling.com/603-assyrians.html>